Research+Paper+2

=**Myths about writing and research processes**=

Not all writing follows the step-by-step process of prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing.


 * Myth 1: You must complete each step in the writing process.**

Take a look at this mythical writing and research process:

Prewriting -> Researching -> Drafting -> Peer reviewing -> Revising -> Editing -> Proofreading -> Publishing

Writing does not often happen this way. In reality, the process is much messier. Give yourself the freedom to skip steps if they are not necessary or to repeat steps if some require additional time.


 * Myth 2: Each step is equally important and time-consuming.**

Depending on the demands of the writing project and the **rhetorical situation**, you may spend lots of time in one area and very little in another. Not only can the steps of the process take varying amounts of time and energy, but your process could also change or shift in the middle of a project as a result of the process itself and what you have found in your research so far.


 * Myth 3: The steps are linear.**

Many people bounce back and forth among the steps, rather than proceed on a straight, one way path.

Very rarely does research happen in a linear fashion. Effective writers and researchers allow the individual **rhetorical situation** to influence their processes for every project and help them determine what step to take next. Writers have several processes to choose from when working on a writing project. The more you know about the options you have in tackling a research and writing project, the more successful you can be in completing it.

=**Elements of writing processes**=

During the course of your research, you will find a lot of information, read a lot of information, and even write a lot of information. Be prepared that you will not use it all.

There are Five Canons of Rhetoric that the ancient Greeks and Romans developed. They address important aspects of writing that you will need to consider as you work on your research project:


 * // Invention // refers to discovering and developing the possible arguments that might persuade an audience. Invention was of the utmost importance to ancient rhetoricians because it is the stage where the author discovers what he or she will say.


 * // Arrangement // refers to the order in which an author might present the information found during the invention stage.


 * // Style // addresses how the author says what he or she has to say.


 * // Memory // refers both to the memorization of a speech that will be delivered or performed and to the memorization of the commonplaces (common topics) that the author can recall to assist with the first stage of invention.


 * // Delivery // deals with how something is presented, or delivered to the audience. Today we might related delivery to the publishing of a piece of writing.


 * Invention **

//Invention// is also known as prewriting - a stage where the author brainstorms, researches, and "invents" possible ideas and arguments. Careful and thorough //invention// leads to effective writing.

The research process contributes to //invention// - research itself is a means of discovering what you want to say. During //invention//, writers try to explore and focus their topics.


 * Researching **

Much like //invention//, research can be useful at any stage of your writing process. Research includes gathering information.


 * Drafting **

Depending on you //rhetorical situation// and writing preferences, you might find that you like to start with //drafting// and that sitting down to write actually helps you generate ideas. //Drafting// includes any part of your writing process that involves generating text that you could imagine ending up in a final version.

//Invention// and //drafting// are very closely related, and if you are doing invention from the beginning of your writing process, you probably are doing some //drafting// as well.


 * How do you write best?**

Open up your blogs and write in response to the following writing prompts:

Answer the following questions as you think about your writing preferences. You might consider all kinds of situations, but especially focus on intense writing tasks that you have completed such as academic writing and research assignments. Understanding your preferences might make it easier to tackle the drafting stage.


 * Where do you like to write? Do you like to write at home? In a certain room? Do you like to go somewhere specific to write? Would you rather write indoors or outdoors?


 * What kind of environment do you like to write in? Do you like to be around other people? Do you like to be alone? Do you like to have "noise" in the background (such as music, television, other people), or do you like to have a quiet environment?


 * When do you like to write? At what time of day do you like to write?


 * Do you prefer to write on the computer of on paper? Why?


 * If you prefer to write on the computer, what software program do you use? Do you have other programs or applications open when you write? If so, which ones?


 * If you prefer to write on paper, what kind of paper do you use? Do you write in a notebook? Do you use pen or pencil?


 * Do you follow any special rituals when you write? Do you have a favorite place to sit? Do you like to have food or drink with you?


 * Do you generally share your writing with others? If so, at what stage? If not, why not?


 * If you share writing with others, what do you do with their comments? What kind of comments do you expect?


 * Do you like to outline your ideas first? Do you draft first? In other words, what is the first step you take when you write?


 * Where do you start writing? Do you start at the beginning? the end? somewhere in the middle? If there's a title, do you write it first or last?


 * How do you know when you are finished writing?

Share your preferences with a classmate of friend, and see if you gather any new ideas about writing situations that might work well for you. Keep these preferences in mind as you draft because you'll do your best writing in your optimal circumstances.


 * Peer Review **

During the //peer review// stage you get to see your writing through the eyes of your audience, or an approximated audience, a luxury that you often don't have when you hand in writing for an assignment or send it out to be published.

//Peer review// is not the same thing as //proofreading//. //Peer review// includes reading and commenting on more global features of a piece of writing, like the development of ideas or the evidence used to support an argument; //proofreading// generally focuses on surface features such as correct use of grammar and consistent adherence to a particular citation style.

The key to good //peer review// is asking the right questions of your peers and helping them understand what kind of feedback you need. The following questions might be helpful:


 * What works well in this piece of writing?


 * What did you want to know more about as you read?


 * What was unclear in this piece of writing?


 * What suggestions would you make for a revision?

These questions will prompt peer reviewers to give a balanced response, discussing things that you did well and things to consider in a revision.

Try following these quidelines when it comes time to participate in a //peer review//:


 * Ask for both positive comments and constructive feedback. It's helpful to know what you're doing well - not just what you should revise.


 * Ask your peer to ask questions if there are things he or she finds confusing in the text. Questions invite a response, and responding to questions written on your draft during a //peer review// will help you begin revising.


 * If you have specific criteria for an assignment or project you are working on, ask you peer to address each of the criteria in his or her review. If there are numerous criteria to consider, perhaps have several peers read your work and have each one look at separate criteria.


 * Finally, offer to review your peer's work as well. When you write a response for one of your peers, write the kind of review that would be helpful to you.


 * Revising **

//Revising// your writing generally refers to larger-scale changes you make to a document. As you revise, you will probably focus on the content of your writing. Revision can be challenging, especially when you have worked very hard on your original draft. You might be reluctant to delete things that you spent time writing, but revising is an act of refining. Sometimes revision will require the addition of ideas, sometimes movement, and sometimes deletion.


 * Editing **

Similar to revision, //editing// is a way of refining and polishing your paper. When you edit, however, your focus is not on the larger-scale issues of content and organization but rather on issues of style and fluidity.


 * Proofreading **

In addition to looking at issues of style and fluidity when you edit, you will also need to proofread your work, focusing on surface features such as grammar punctuation, and citations.


 * Publishing **

Once you have brainstormed, researched, drafted, revised, rethought, edited, drafted again, edited, and proofread, you will be ready to publish your writing. Publishing could include a variety of ways of presenting your writing to your readers. For example, you might print out your paper and hand it in to your teacher. Or you might upload your research onto a Web site. Or you might send an article to a newspaper. Or you might turn a report in to a supervisor at work. Your choice of publication method will be influenced, of course, by your **rhetorical situation**.

=**Introduction to the research process**=

Although //research// is listed as one of the possible steps in the list of writing processes, that step can be broken down into a series of smaller steps, or processes. Individual research processes are just as variable and dependent on **rhetorical situations** as writing processes.

Remember that the simplest way to understand research is to remember that research answers a question. There are five basic steps in research that you should follow:

1. Identify your topic/problem and develop a focused research question.

2. Assess what you know and what you need to know and develop a research plan.

3. Locate and document the resources you find.

4. Analyze resources and develop the answer to your research question.

5. Present the answer to your research question while carefully citing your resources.

Many students make the mistake of simplifying their research process by focusing on step 3, locating resources. Without careful preparation of steps 1 and 2, however, as well as the careful analysis and presentation of the results of your findings in steps 4 and 5, the work in step 3 can be completely overwhelming and not well represented in the results of the research project.

Another way in which students simplify the research process is by assuming that the only product of their research is the final report or presentation of the results.