Research+Paper+4

=**Finding resources through secondary research**=

We are living in the information age where we are overloaded with information unlike at any other era in history.

Many students are often paralyzed by the overwhelming number of option for answering a research question. Where should you start looking for information? What search terms should you use to locate resources? Should you gather information from other people and conduct field research? If so, who should you ask? Or, should you rely solely on published resources? The options can seem endless.

The good news about conducting large research projects is that you can break the process down into manageable steps. If you complete a thorough rhetorical analysis of your writing situation and a critical self-evaluation of your perspectives, experiences, biases, and knowledge, you are already off to a good start. You have an idea of why you are interested in your topic and what information you need to balance the perspective you are developing on your issue. Chances are that you have already read a few things to begin thinking about the topoic. And if you focused your research project on a few key research questions, you already have the beginnings of your search terms.

=**Conducting research**=

You have an abundance of information about nearly any topic available at your fingertips, so it is critical to carefully plan how you will conduct your research. And Internet search engine like Google or Bing or Yahoo! is probably not the best place to begin. Searching for the key terms from your research question in Google will probably give you millions of potential sources and Web sites that you will need to comb through, and that can be quite overwhelming (not to mention inefficient).

A better plan is to


 * reflect on what you already know about your topic,


 * decide what kind of information you need about your topic,


 * narrow your research results by developing specific search terms, and


 * plan where to look for that information

As you respond to the blog writing prompts, think about the **rhetorical situation** for your writing. Who is your audience, and what is your purpose for writing? Keep this in mind as you responde, and you will have the tools you need to develop a research plan that will give you useful results.


 * Identifying the information you need to find**

What kind of information do you need to find for your topic? The first step is to "take inventory" of your knowledge about your topic. Once you have determined what you already know, you can start developing specific lists of what you need to learn and what resources you need to find.


 * Primary research**


 * Primary research** entails going straight to the resource to answer your research question. There are two criteria for defining primary resources. First, the resource itself must be the primary object of study, for example, you might want to learn about the soldiers perspectives on the Civil War. In this case, you might examine letters written home by the soldiers themselves.

The second criterion defining a **primary resource** is that you, the researcher, are the one collecting the data. The data from the resources you find are not filtered through any other person.


 * Secondary research**


 * Secondary research** on the other hand, deals with resources produced by someone else. In other words, your knowledge and experience of the primary resource to answer your research question is mediated through another author or authors.

To decide whether you will be conducting primary or secondary research, return to your **rhetorical situation**. The type of information you need will be partially determined by your research question, your perception of your audience, and your purpose for writing.


 * Should you conduct primary or secondary research? **

To help you determine what type of research will best answer your research question, fulfill your project's purpose, and appeal to your intended audience, you will want to make sure that you are gathering the right types of resources. Use the following chart to help you decide what types of resources you will need and what types of research you will conduct based on your **rhetorical situation**. You might not be able to think of both primary and secondary resources for every category - that's okay. If you are having trouble thinking of possibilities, that might be a clue as to which type of research you should conduct.

help you achieve your purpose and motivate your audience to action? (Consider what you want readers to do after reading your paper). ||  ||   || does your audience value - numbers and statistics? anecdotes and stories? case studies and ethnographies? expert testimonies? What will be most convincing? ||  ||   || can help you answer your question thoroughly? ||  ||   || have access to? Who can help you locate and gather information? What and who do you have access to for gathering information? (Be sure to consider the project's time frame as you ask yourself these questions). ||  ||   ||
 * || **Primary** || **Secondary** ||
 * **Purpose:** What types of resources will
 * **Audience:** What types of resources/data
 * **Topic/question:** What type of information
 * **Author:** What types of resources do you

If you are still having difficulty determining where to start, you might want to begin with secondary research because it will give you a foundation in what others have said and written in response to your issue. **Secondary research** helps you understand the **rhetorical situation** surrounding your issue, and it can give you a solid foundation before embarking on **primary research**.


 * Locating resources **

If you have spent time and energy preparing to research, the process of locating resources will be much simpler than if you start with a blind Internet search. Use the following list to help you get started:

1. Find the resources you already know about.

2. Find the resources that emerged during your planning.

3. **Ask a librarian to help with your search**.

4. Systematically search new resources.

Once you have tapped these resources, go to the **librarian**. **Librarians** are experts at finding information; however, they cannot serve you will if you haven't prepared for meeting with them. Instead of thinking of the librarian as the starting point, think of him or her as a place to go for additional help once you have begun to determine the direction of your research. A good thing to prepare before you talk to the librarian is a list of potential **search terms**.


 * Specific search terms**

When you begin to search for secondary resources, you need a list of specific terms that will help you locate those resources.

In the quest to identify search terms, you already have a key resource, your research question. The key words in your research question will be your principal search terms. The key words are the descriptive nouns, verbs, and adjectives in your research question. If you can't easily identify key words in your research question, you may need to go back and continue narrowing and focusing your question.


 * Expanding and focusing search terms**

There are three primary methods to help identify, evaluate, and further focus key words.

1. Be sure to carefully acknowledge the literal differences between the words in your research question. Using a dictionary, look up the definitions for each key word from your research question as well as two or three alternative words. Notice the subtle distinctions between the definitions.

2. Try adding modifying phrases to the key words in your research question. For example, if you are researching the differences between Chevy automobile models in the 1950s, you may find a lot of information. You might first focus on a specific model, like the Bel Air. You may decide you want to focus only on specific years, like the major differences between '55, '56, and '57. The further you focus, the more modifying words you add to your key search terms.

3. As you conduct your research, identify the alternative phrases people use when talking about your subject. Once you've identified some of those alternative phrases, carefully distinguish why one person refers to your topic using one phrase and another person uses a different phrase. As you did with the literal, or dictionary, definitions, search for subtle differences to help you further focus your research as well as to start processing your data.


 * Develop a list of search terms **

After you circle the key words in your research question, write them in the accompanying chart. Brainstorm alternative terms for each key word. After you've run out of ideas, ask your friends, family, classmates, and librarian to help you.


 * || **Key Word 1** || **Key Word 2** || **Key Word 3** ||
 * **Alternative**
 * terms from your**
 * brainstorming** ||  ||   ||   ||

Once you have your list of key words and alternatives, be sure to talk to a librarian. The librarian will help you add and cull terms from your list based on his or her experience as a researcher. The librarian should also be able to help you identify Library of Congress classification terms that will help you find information in the library more readily. Keep your chart of search terms with you as you collect your data. While reading articles or listening to interview responses, other useful terms might emerge during your research process.


 * || **Search Term 1** || **Search Term 2** || **Search Term 3** ||
 * **Librarians and the**
 * Library of Congress**
 * classification terms** ||  ||   ||   ||
 * **Terms you find during**
 * your research process** ||  ||   ||   ||


 * Search engines and Web directories**

Different search engines yield varied results because they are programmed to search differently. Depending on how the search engine has been programmed, it might tank returns differently as well. If you have not tried more than one search engine, you might try your search terms on a couple of different search engines to see what results you receive. A few of the most popular search engines are:


 * Ask.com


 * Google.com


 * bing.com


 * Yahoo.com

You might also try a couple of metasearch engines that compile the results of multiple search engines for you. Several popular metasearch engines are:


 * Dogpile.com


 * Excite.com


 * WebCrawler.com

In addition to search engines, Web directories such as the Open Directory Project ([]) can be useful starting points for locating online resources dealing with your research topic. Web directories are different from search engines because they do not list links, or hits, based on key words. Instead, they list links by categories and subcategories. Whereas search engines are programmed Web "crawlers" that search available Web sites automatically, Web directories are edited by people who submit sites for includsion in different categories and review the appropriateness of sites included in the directory.

=**Types of resources**=

When you begin to evaluation your resources and consider how you will interpret them and incorporate them into your writing, you first need to understand the nature of the resources that you find. Understanding the nature of the resource is important so that you can begin to evaluate it and so that you can determine how to cite it in your research.


 * How texts change over time**

One of the defining characteristics of a resource is how it changes (or does not change) over time. Resources can be categorized in these three ways:


 * **Static**. Static resources change the least of all three types. They are only "published" once, even though they may be redeveloped as other editions. Examples, include books, paintings, films, and basic html coded Web sites.


 * **Syndicated**. Syndicated resources are released over time under the same general title. Examples include periodicals (magazines and journals), television shows, blogs, and podcasts.


 * **Dynamic**. Dynamic resources are never permanently published in a final form. If there are repeat performances or publications, they are different every time. Examples include plays and other live performances, wiki publications, and field research (observations, interviews, and surveys).


 * How texts are reviewed**

Another important characteristic of the resources you find is the process by which they are reviewed. Review generally takes place before publication, but with the technological capabilities that individuals now have for publishing material, review sometimes happens after the fact.


 * **Edited**. Before the resource is published, someone with some type of authority or certification (besides the author) reviews the resources and provides suggestions for revision.


 * **peer reviewed**. Before the resource is published, it must not only pass the editor's criteria but must also be approved by peers in the same profession as the author.


 * **Self-published**. The author publishes the resource. There is no authoritative editor or other gatekeeper. Whoever provides the author with resources to help publishe, however, may function as some form of gatekeeper.

Understanding the review process of your resources will also be helpful as you evaluate the usefulness and credibility of the resources that you find.


 * Library resources versus Internet resources**

In the past, you might have though about resources as being either "in the library" or "on the Internet." This is an easy distinction, but it is not always accurate or applicable. Consider an article that you might find in the //New York Times//, a newspaper that can be read in print or online. You might find the same article in the print version of the paper and on the World Wide Web. If it's the same article, does it matter where you found it? For the purposes of evaluating the credibility or usefulness of the resource, probably not. It's still a newspaper article, published in a **syndicated** publication that was reviewed by an editor. If you are determining how to cite the resource, however, the location of the resource does matter.

When you are reviewing and analyzing your resources, keep in mind that the library/Internet distinction is not quite as simple as it might seem at first. The Internet is where students often turn when they are having difficulty getting started. Many teachers warn students against using Internet resources because they are easily alterable and because anyone can construct and publish a Web site. These are important points to remember, but it is essential to use clear evaluative criteria when you are looking at //any// resource. Print resources can be self-published as well. Analyzing how easily a resource is changed, how often it is changed, who changed it, who reviews it, and who is responsible for the content will help you choose resources that are reliable and credible, wherever you might find them.

Some Internet resources, because of the nature of their publication and review processes and the ease with which they can be accessed, need to be scrutinized especially carefully, however. Many teachers warn students about using information from //Wikipedia. Wikipedia// is an online encyclopedia whose entries any user can revise. //Wikipedia// has an elaborate review system under which various users take responsibility for reviewing and monitoring content, but it is not foolproof.

An equally important point to remember is that //Wikipedia// is not just an online resource - it is the online equivalent of a reference book. Reference books can be good places to learn general information about a subject, but they are not the most authoritative resources to use as evidence in an argument. Because they are compilations of the research done by others, reference books are not **primary sources** or even necessarily **secondary resources**. (You could think of them as //**tertiary**// resources). They can be helpful at the beginning stage of a project, though, because they often include useful bibliographies that point you to other helpful resources. They might also help you identify potential search terms.

One of the best methods for finding the most reliable perspectives on a specific topic is to search through and compare a variety of types of resources. As mentioned earlier, you should not limit your research to an online search of a few terms.

=**Static Resources**=


 * Static resources** are often the ones that students think of first when they start to conduct **secondary research**. **Static resources** are usually published once and rarely revised. If they are revised, as in the case of books, Web sites, or software applications, they are usually released as a separate edition.


 * Books**

Many students think of books as the most authoritative and desirable resource for a research project. After all, if someone took the time to write an entire book, then they must have a lot of useful information to share, right? And if someone expended the effort and money to publish the book, then it must be authoritative. Right? Well, sometimes...but not always. Books can be useful because they compile a great deal of information into one publication. However, books can also take a long time to publish, so they are not always the best place to start looking for cutting-edge research on a current issue. On the other hand, books are generally more extensive, in-depth treatments of a topic, so they often have excellent bibliographies and can give a researcher a good sense of the background and context of an issue. Depending on what your topic is and how important it is for you to find timely information about it, books might not be the best place to start.

If you look for books on your topic, you will want to scan several things that will help you quickly evaluate the usefulness of a book in answering your research question.

1. **Copyright.** The date of publication will give you a sense of how current the information in the book is. 2. **Publisher.** If the publisher is a reputable one (e.g., an academic press or a press that publishes a great deal in a particular area or field), then it could help you determine how reliable the information in the book is. An academic press also probably has a peer review process, which means that other professionals in the field reviewed the information and suggested revisions and corrections prior to publication. Be aware that the Internet has made it quite easy to self-publish books; in such cases, it will be of the utmost importance that you verify the author's credibility. 3. **Table of contents.** If you have been looking for information on this topic already, a quick scan of the table of contents will give you a sense of whether the book presents a balanced and thorough treatment of the subject. 4. **Bibliography.** The bibliography should provide evidence that the author(s) consulted a multitude of other resources in writing the book. Scanning the bibliography will give you a sense of how balanced and thorough the author's research was.

One of the best places to start looking for books is at the school library. Searching the online catalog will give you a sense of whether or not the school has any books that might be useful for answering your research questions.


 * Search the library catalog **

You might start your research for resources by browsing your library's online catalog. As you search, answer the following questions.

1. Enter your search terms into the keyword search in the library catalog. How many resources does the catalog return? Which ones look potentially useful to you? Make sure you note the call number of particularly promising resources so that you can find them on the library shelves.

2. Use variations on your search terms. What kinds of results did you find when you altered your search terms or used them in different combination? Which terms were most useful?

3. Your school participates in a program called MyLibraryNYC and you therefore have access to interlibrary loan. What resources could you request from the New York Public Library? (If you do request resources from the NYPL, make sure that you leave enough time to receive the resources and look through them before an assignment or project is due).

4. The NYPL might also have access to electronic books. If you are doing your search remotely, ebooks can be an especially useful resource. Does the NYPL catalog list any ebooks on your topic?

5. Go to the shelves and look for the resources that sound most promising to you. Once you find the section in the library shelves that has books on your topic, browse the shelf. You might be surprised at the useful resources you find by reading the spines of books surrounding yours on the library shelves. What titles do you see that look promising?


 * Web sites **

Well-chosen Web sites can provide some of the most up-to-date information on a subject. If your research question requires that you find the most current information available, you might want to search the Internet for appropriate and useful Web sites. However, the amount of information available (and the number of Web sites on some popular subjects) can be completely overwhelming. If you decide to surf the Web for information on your topic, you should carefully narrow your search to find resources that will be applicable and useful. To determine how reliable the information is on the Web site you have found, look for the following key pieces of information:

1. **Author.** Who wrote the information on the Web site? What are the author's credentials? If you cannot find an author, that is not always cause for alarm. In such a case, look for a sponsoring organization and see if that alleviates your concerns. 2. **Sponsoring organization.** Is there an organization sponsoring the information on the Web site? For example, is the Web site published by a government entity? Is it a corporate Web site? Sometimes you'll have to dig for information, but you should be able to find an author, sponsoring organization, or both. Sometimes, the extension on the URL can give you a hint as to where the information came from. For example, .gov indicates a government-sponsored Web site, .edu is generally an educational institution, .org is a nonprofit organization, and .com is a commercial Web site, most often a corporate or personal Web site. If you cannot find either an author or a sponsoring organization, then you should be skeptical about the information you have found. 3. **Date of publication and/or last update.** When was the information on the site published? This might be important for your topic, depending on your **rhetorical situation**. You might also look at how recently the information was updated.

One of the biggest concerns about Internet resources is that there is not always a clearly stated review process. If a resource you have found is located in an online publication, you might be able to find specific details about its review and publication process. And if the Web site is published by a sponsoring organization, you could probably conclude that the organization approves of the content (unless a disclaimer is attached to the article site).

=**Syndicated Resources**=


 * Syndicated resources** are published in installments over time, usually under the same general title. For example, magazines and newspapers are syndicated resources because they publish issues periodically that include new articles and information. Likewise, blogs are syndicated resources because the authors publish new entries over time.


 * Periodicals**

Periodicals include newspapers, magazines, academic and trade journals, and other publications that are released "periodically" under the same title. They can be found in print and online, and sometimes the same publication can be found in both places. Many newspapers, for example, have both print and online versions. If you choose to cite periodicals as references, it is important that you understand what kind of periodical you are reading. **Newspapers and magazines** tend to report on research others have done rather than present original research. They often include ads and are affiliated with commercial publishers. They tend to fall into two categories: consumer periodicals and trade/business periodicals. Each type is targeted to a different audience. **Journals** have various degrees of review and are often affiliated with particular organizations or universities. They have different standards for research appropriate for different audiences. Journals can be divided into at least two categories: trade journals and academic journals.

Academic journals are often considered most authoritative because of their rigorous review process, but your topic might not be discussed in academic journals. As you choose resources for you project, think about who your audience is and what your purpose is in writing. What kind of publication will be most authoritative and convincing to your readers?

The most efficient and effective way of searching for periodicals is through the online databases available through your school and public library. Most libraries have two different kinds of databases - general databases and subject-specific databases.


 * Search for resources in periodicals **

Try the following steps to find resources in periodicals that will help you answer your research question. As you complete each step, take careful notes on what you find so that you can locate the resources again later.


 * Use an academic database through your school library. Enter the search terms that you have decided on. Then try a different set of terms in the same database to see if you get a different set of results.


 * Choose a subject-specific database, appropriate to your topic, and search for your terms again.


 * Search for you terms in Google Scholar, and academic search engine. What resources do you find that are different from the journal databases?


 * Enter your search terms into a newspaper database to see if you can find any news stories about your subject.

=** Dynamic resources **=

**Dynamic resources** are meant to change. They are continuously changeable over time through repeated revisions. **Dynamic resources** are often not edited or peer reviewed before publication, but they are usually reviewed (or perhaps just revised by a reviewer) after they are published. The reviews might be in the form of comments or suggestions. They might also take the form of discussion such as that found under the "talk" tab in //Wikipedia//. In such cases, it is important to remember that the credibility and authority of the resource should be measured by looking at the entire context of the source - not just the original text but also its revisions and reviewers.

Examples of **dynamic resources** are:


 * Email lists and newsgroups


 * Social networking sites


 * Online communities


 * Wikis


 * Performances and broadcasts


 * Search for a variety of sources**

Once you have read about all of the different kinds of resources, take a few minutes to brainstorm some ideas about how you might use various resources to answer your research question. Write down your responses to the following questions.

1. What kinds of resources could you use in the invention stage of your research process? Could you look at blogs to help refine your research question? Could you browse news-related web sites to search for ways to focus your research? Would browsing through recent periodicals help you think through your topic? Look through the different kinds of resources we've gone over in class and write down a few that might be useful as you plan your research and writing.

2. Where might you find the most authoritative, persuasive resources that will help you answer your research question? What kinds of static, syndicated, and dynamic resources might you search for?

3. How will you evaluate the credibility of the resources that you did find? What criteria will you use to determine if they are persuasive, reliable resources? Consider your rhetorical situation and compare it with what you know about your resource: who wrote it and when; how and when it was updated and revised; how it was reviewed and by whom.

=**Developing a research plan**=

Finding useful resources is the heart of research - collecting information and data about your topic in general and your research question specifically. To be successful in this step, it is important to have a clearly defined research plan. Many students become easily overwhelmed at this step because of all of the possible resources they might access for information.

The components, structure, and steps of your research plan will depend on your **rhetorical situation**. However, all research plans are based around the following key questions:


 * What data do you need to collect?


 * In what way will you collect this data?


 * On what timeline will you collect this data?

In other words, what, how, and when will you conduct your research project?


 * What's your plan?**

If you have already completed, and possibly reflected upon and revised, the various activities you've completed on your blog and wiki, you have a working draft of your research plan, without the timeline component. You can fully develop a research plan in three steps.

1. List the different types of data and resources you need to collect. If possible, break the types of data and resources into smaller pieces. For example, if you are searching for statistics about whether or not the Earth has a population problem, you can break it into smaller groups of statistics about rising birth rates, rising life expectancies, and rising population numbers based on continents and countries. Ask classmates and family members to help you break down your data and resource needs into the smallest possible groups.

2. For each piece of information, describe where and how you will locate and collect that data. Be specific about where you will be looking - list not only that you'll be using the school's library databases, for example, but which specific databases. If for some reason you have to stop researching in the middle of a session, you'll be able to refer back to which databases you wanted to search (and if you tracked your data collection well, which ones you already searched). Ask your librarian for help with ideas on where you might locate different types of resources.

3. Provide a timeline, preferably with deadlines, for each task that you have to complete. Just think, the smaller each task is (the smaller each group of data to collect, the smaller each step of collecting it), the easier it will be to "fit" your research into your already busy schedule. If you leave your research plan in big pieces of work, you will only be able to work in big pieces of time. If you take the time to break your research up into smaller, more manageable pieces, you'll be able to fit it into smaller portions of your day; you'll work more consistently and chip away at your research project.


 * **Types of Resources** || **Location of Resources** || **Deadlines** ||  ||   ||   ||   ||