Blog+Writing+Prompts


 * 1) What do you consider interesting?**

People write best when they write about topics //they// consider interesting, but to choose a relevant topic, you must know yourself. To help you understand your interests, complete the following phrases as honestly and completely as you can.


 * The subject I most enjoy reading about is...


 * My favorite hobby or pastime is...


 * If I won the lottery, I would use the money to...


 * The type of volunteer activity I prefer is...


 * My favorite school subject has always been...


 * If I ran the world, the first thing I would change would be...


 * 2) What "ticks you off"?**

Make a list of four or five things that "tick you off." Explain why. (Choose significant things that others might experience as well. For instance, your little brother might tick you off, but there is little chance that this annoyance will yield a possible paper topic). It is possible that one of these annoyances can be transformed into an interesting, engaging, and researchable project.


 * 3) Potential research topics**

Choose //five// topics that you think are potential research topics for your paper and briefly (in 4 to 5 sentences) explain why these topics are of interest to you. Read the overviews provided for each of the topics you select.

In order that you read each of the overviews carefully, you are to answer the following questions about each overview:


 * What is the topic you are reading about?
 * What is the source citation? Just copy and paste it from the bottom onto your blog. **DO NOT COPY THE URL!**
 * Summarize the central idea of the overview in one or two sentences **IN YOUR OWN WORDS**.
 * List two to four specific details that support the central idea **IN YOUR OWN WORDS**.
 * Create an opportunity for further research by writing down two questions the text raises about the central idea (explicitly or implicitly). **Explicit means** stated clearly and in detail, leaving no room for confusion or doubt, while **implicit means** implied though not plainly expressed.
 * Write down one word or phrase whose meaning you do not fully understand.
 * Next, write down what may be preventing you from understanding it (is it an unrecognizable term? an unfamiliar person, place, or allusion?)
 * Use a third party resource (dictionary, thesaurus, Google search) to find its definition or meaning. Write it down.
 * Write one question about the overview that you can pose to your peers in a discussion.


 * 4) Prewriting Question**


 * What cases can be made for or against X?


 * 4a) Make a final decision about your logical argument research topic. What is it? Questions to ask yourself:**

What have we been studying in class this year? Which subjects appeal to me? What are people writing about? What's most interesting to me? Can I find information about that?


 * 4b) Why are you most interested in the topic of argument selected?**


 * 5) Explore what you already know. Access Leading Issue summaries ("Topic Overview" or "At Issue" Pages) and Timeline (under Research Tools) from the SIRS Leading Issue you have chosen. In 3-5 sentences, summarize the background and historical information of the Leading Issue you selected. Include main controversies, key figures, important organizations, and key events.**

Briefly list what you know about your topic already. Consider the following:


 * Surprising facts or statistics


 * the extent of the problem


 * important people or institutions involved


 * key schools of thought


 * common misconceptions


 * observations you've made


 * important trends


 * major controversies


 * 5a) Read the Essential Question, Pro/Con articles, and Viewpoints to learn about the claims of your Leading Issue topic of argument. What are all the claims related to the Leading Issue topic of argument you selected? (A claim is a position on a topic you will argue with evidence to support it).**


 * 5b) Think about which claim you would like to be the focus of your argument. Think about this: 'Which claim do I most strongly agree with?' If you want to challenge yourself even more, select a claim you do not strongly agree with for a more challenging topic of logical argument.**


 * 5c) Decide on the main claim of your argument. Review all the claims related to your selected Leading Issue topic of argument. Which claim is the focus of your argument?**


 * 6) Finding a good research question**

Research is not research until you have focused it around a solid research question that addresses a problem or issue. Brainstorm a list of questions //about your topic// that you'd like to answer through your research. Make this list as long as you can and try to see your topic in as many ways as possible. Push yourself on this. It is an important step.


 * 7) Answering your research questions**

Review the research questions you composed and list the types of information you will need to locate in order to answer these questions **//and why//**. Indicate the types of sources that you think might be fruitful places in which to look for this kind of information //**and why**//.

For example, types of information:


 * facts


 * statistics


 * opinions of experts


 * definitions


 * eyewitness or personal testimony


 * a combination of some or all of these

Types of sources:


 * periodicals (magazines, newspaper, or academic journals)


 * books


 * surveys


 * interviews


 * Web sites


 * 8) Creating a thesis statement**

What's the difference between a thesis statement and a research question? Research questions and thesis statements are actually like two sides of the same coin. A research question addresses a problem to be solved. A thesis statement is a //tentative answer// to a research question. It is tentative in that your written research project is going to have to test your thesis and hopefully show it to be correct. Thus, if your research question were:

//To what extent should the U.S. government have known of the risk of the New York 9/11 disaster before it happened?//

your thesis statement could be:

//There was sufficient warning of a New York 9/11 type disaster before it happened, so the U.S. government should have been well prepared for its occurrence.//

Or your thesis might be:

//Despite the signs of a potential terrorist attack, there is no way the U.S. government could have had sufficient information to be prepared for the New York 9/11 disaster.//

For either of these possible thesis statements the onus would be on you to provide convincing evidence to support your thesis (as well as giving due consideration to contradicting evidence).

The thesis statement route does have a tendency to create a bias, so that it's tempting to overlook or minimize evidence that does not support your case. Thus, unless you have been told to provide a thesis statement, using a research question is more likely to have you entering your investigation with an open mind.


 * 9) Make your project relevant**

Think of a research project as an opportunity to find out something new about an issue that intrigues you. Think of it as an opportunity to help you think more complexly about important, issues, events, and ideas. Make your project relevant by answering these questions:


 * How does this topic relate to past/present concerns in my life?


 * How does this subject relate to issues I have recently been studying or thinking about?


 * How might this subject be important to me in the future?


 * How can I use this subject to explore something that I want to know more about?


 * 10) How have you conducted research before?**

Think of a situation recently in which you had to conduct research to solve a problem. It could have been formal or informal research. Perhaps you had to solve some transportation problems getting to school, or maybe you had to come up with a solution to a challenge at school. You might even consider the choice that you made about where you want to apply for college or which major you want to pursue. Answer the following questions about that experience.


 * Describe the situation. Why did you need to conduct research? What did you need to find out? Try to state your challenge as a question that you needed to answer.


 * Who was involved in the situation - just you, or did the research and conclusion(s) affect others? Did you conduct the research alone or with others?


 * How did you explore possible answers to your question? Where did you look for information? Did you ask anyone for advice? Did you look for information that others had written, or did you gather information by talking to people? For example, you needed to find a doctor so you asked around or you needed to buy a car and you asked what others thought of which car you should buy.


 * What conclusion(s) did you come to? How did you decide on that conclusion?


 * Were you satisfied that you had considered all the options or did you make a quick decision? If time was a factor, was there something you would have done differently if you had had more time?


 * How did you share the results of your research? Who wanted or needed the information and how did you present it to them?


 * 11) How do research processes compare?**

Think about two times you've conducted research in the past: one when you conducted research for a school project and one when you conducted research to answer a question for yourself. Think about the processes that you used in each situation and respond to the following questions.


 * Why did you conduct this research? If you were given instructions, what were they? Provide one example of research you had to do for a school assignment and one example of personal research you had to do - for example, you were looking to buy a car, or decide which colleges to apply to.


 * What questions did you ask? Provide one example of research you had to do for a school assignment and one example of personal research you had to do.


 * How did you start your research? Provide one example of research you had to do for a school assignment and one example of personal research you had to do.


 * What went right and what went wrong? Provide one example of research you had to do for a school assignment and one example of personal research you had to do.


 * What were the outcomes of your research? Provide one example of research you had to do for a school assignment and one example of personal research you had to do.


 * How would you conduct research differently if you were to do it again? Provide one example of research you had to do for a school assignment and one example of personal research you had to do.


 * || **Academic Research** || **Personal Research** ||
 * **Why did you conduct this research? If you**
 * were given instructions, what were they?** ||  ||   ||
 * **What questions did you ask?** ||  ||   ||
 * **How did you start?** ||  ||   ||
 * **What went right and what went wrong?** ||  ||   ||
 * **What were the outcomes of your research?** ||  ||   ||
 * **How would you conduct your research**
 * differently if you were to do it again?** ||  ||   ||


 * 12) How do rhetorical situations compare?**

Think of a situation in the recent past that required some research. Maybe you were planning a celebratory dinner at a restaurant and needed to look at menus, price ranges, locations, accommodations, and so on. Or you might focus on a research project that you completed for one of your classes. Think about the rhetorical situation of your research and create a Venn diagram including the purpose of your research, the author, the topic, and the audience. (The Venn diagram will have to be drawn on a piece of paper and handed in to me).

Compare and contrast your situation using the following questions:


 * What motivated you to conduct the research? (example: you wanted to have a great party!)


 * What was the topic, or subject, of your research? Was the topic tied to a specific time and location? Why or why not?


 * Who was the audience for your research? Who was affected by the results? Who might have been an unintended audience that was affected by your research? How did knowing your audience affect your research? (the audience in the above example was all of the people going to the party)


 * As the author, what was your experience with this topic before you began to research it? What was your experience with the audience? How did your experiences affect your research? (You might not have ever planned a party at a restaurant before for example).


 * 13) Discover disciplinary patterns and conventions**

Begin by finding a teacher or professional that you could talk to in the discipline/major/career that you are interested in pursuing. You might talk to a teacher that you know, or you might talk to a friend or relative who is currently in the kind of job you would like to have. Ask the following questions, and take careful notes on the responses you receive.


 * What kinds of writing are assigned in classes in this field? What kinds of writing do professionals in this field do on the job?


 * Are there specific patterns or conventions expected in the writing in this field? If so, what are they?


 * What are the most common problems that students or new writers in the field have? How could these problems be avoided?


 * What kinds of research are conducted most often in this field?


 * Are there specific research processes that people in this field/profession usually follow? How do they learn these processes?


 * What citation style is primarily used for research conducted in this field? Why is that citation style used? Are other styles sometimes used as well? If so, how should a new writer in the field choose an appropriate citation style?


 * Is there an example of writing in this field that you could share with me? (You might even ask to see something that the teacher or professional has written).

If you do receive a piece of writing that you could analyze, look for the patterns and conventions that the teacher or professional identified for you. Then share your discoveries with your classmates. You might try filling out a table so that you can compare the similarities and differences among the disciplines you each investigated.


 * 14) How do you write best?**

Answer the following questions as you think about your writing preferences. You might consider all kinds of situations, but especially focus on intense writing tasks that you have completed such as academic writing and research assignments. Understanding your preferences might make it easier to tackle the drafting stage.


 * Where do you like to write? Do you like to write at home? In a certain room? Do you like to go somewhere specific to write? Would you rather write indoors or outdoors?


 * What kind of environment do you like to write in? Do you like to be around other people? Do you like to be alone? Do you like to have "noise" in the background (such as music, television, other people), or do you like to have a quiet environment?


 * When do you like to write? At what time of day do you like to write?


 * Do you prefer to write on the computer of on paper? Why?


 * If you prefer to write on the computer, what software program do you use? Do you have other programs or applications open when you write? If so, which ones?


 * If you prefer to write on paper, what kind of paper do you use? Do you write in a notebook? Do you use pen or pencil?


 * Do you follow any special rituals when you write? Do you have a favorite place to sit? Do you like to have food or drink with you?


 * Do you generally share your writing with others? If so, at what stage? If not, why not?


 * If you share writing with others, what do you do with their comments? What kind of comments do you expect?


 * Do you like to outline your ideas first? Do you draft first? In other words, what is the first step you take when you write?


 * Where do you start writing? Do you start at the beginning? the end? somewhere in the middle? If there's a title, do you write it first or last?


 * How do you know when you are finished writing?

Share your preferences with a classmate of friend, and see if you gather any new ideas about writing situations that might work well for you. Keep these preferences in mind as you draft because you'll do your best writing in //your// optimal circumstances.


 * 15) What are your writing idiosyncrasies?**

Over time, most people realize that they have a writing style that tends to rely on certain words and sentence structures, and they tend to make the same errors over and over again. Answer the following questions to start a list of the idiosyncrasies of your writing style.


 * What have friends, family members, and teachers identified as strengths in your writing? What have they said that you do well?


 * What words, phrases, or sentence styles do you find yourself repeating in your writing?


 * What things do you always find yourself correcting in your own writing? What things have friends and family members politely corrected for you?


 * If you still have them, pull out writing assignments from past classes. Read through the comments. What common themes run through the comments?


 * What parts of your own writing (paragraphs, complex sentences, semicolons, passive voice, etc.) do you already know you should spend some time focusing on and improving?

If you know you have problems in a specific area, ask someone to pay close attention to it when he or she is peer reviewing your writing. If you tend to overuse certain words or sentence styles, consider checking to make sure that you add variety to your writing. Also use this list to help you select one aspect of your writing that you would like to work on improving during a specific amount of time (perhaps during a semester). Consider sharing this list with your teacher to discuss methods that might help you address specific trouble areas.


 * 16) Identify //kairos//**

Answer the following questions to explore what elements of kairos might shape your research.


 * What is your motivate for doing this research and writing? course assignment and grades? interest in topic? need to do/change something in your life?


 * What is going on around you that affects your understanding of this research project and topic? at school? at work? at home? in the community?


 * What has happened in the past and present, and what might happen in the future, that affects your understanding of this research project and topic?


 * 17) Analyze the rhetorical situation**

Start thinking about what is going on in your life and in your various academic, professional, and personal communities that might influence your understanding of possible research topics. Consider resources, both people and places, that you have access to while developing your research topic and/or during your research process. Focus on situations that would benefit from knowing more about your topic. How might your research impact the real world? Use the table below to help analyze your research project's rhetorical situation.


 * || **Purpose** || **Audience** || **Author** ||
 * **Time** || What has happened in the past, or is happening in the present, that motivates research and communication? What will happen in the future that will require research and communication? || What has happened in the past, or is happening in the present, that motivates the audience to care about this topic? What will the audience need to do in the future to motivate reading and learning about the topic? || What has happened in the author's past, is happening in the present, or might happen in the author's future that motivates him or her to research and write? ||
 * **Space** || What persons, places, or things will be affected by the outcomes of this research? || What "real-world" things can the audience do to impact this issue based on the research and writing? || What resources does the author have to facilitate research, writing, and publishing on this topic? ||


 * 19) Find out what's important to you**

Take some time to explore the various communities that you participate in:


 * personal - home, family, leisure, and so on


 * academic - school, past, present, and future


 * professional - work and career, past, present, and future


 * civic - community, political (local, national, global), and so on

Answer the following questions about these four communities you live in.

1. What discussions (in writing, on the Internet, verbally) engage you and other members of the community?

2. What events or experiences have happened that you still remember and that left you, or other members of the community, with questions or concerns?

3. What problems or concerns exist in this particular community?

Focus on one or two of your answers by digging deeper with the following questions.

4. Who, which individuals and groups, is involved in this discussion, event, or problem? Why are they involved?

5. When and where did/does the discussion, event, or problem take place?

6. What exactly is the topic of the discussion, event, or problem?

7. Why is the discussion, event, or problem significant to the community members?

8. How does the community usually start to resolve the discussion, event, or problem?


 * 20) Generate topic ideas**

As you think about topics to research, try writing down your responses to these steps.


 * Spend three to five minutes generating a list of topics that you find interesting and compelling (you might refer to your writing from the "Find out what's important to you" activity. List six to eight possibilities.


 * Go through your list and phrase each topic as a question. In other workds, what would you like to find out? For example. if you listed, "Parking at my school," then you might write, "How could the school provide more convenient parking options for students?" You might even generate more than one question for a topic?


 * Now look at your list of questions and choose one that sounds particularly interesting to you. Freewrite for five minutes on why you think this topic is interesting and what you know about it.


 * Look at your freewriting and highlight or underline the most interesting idea you came up with. Copy (or copy and past, if you're using a word-processing program) that idea below your freewriting and write about that idea for the next five minutes.


 * At this point, you might continue this exercise one or two more times until you find a focus that seems interesting to you. Or, if you find yourself stuck and think you might not want to research this topic, try one of your other questions and start the exercise at question 3 again.


 * 21) Consider audience and purpose**

As you make a final decision on your topic for research, freewrite for five minutes on each of the following two questions.


 * What might your audience be interested in? How could you relate your topic to your audience's experience?


 * Will this topic satisfy the purpose of your writing and research? What criteria must you keep in mind to make sure that you are meeting your writing goals?

Your answers to these questions might help you choose the best topic from several that you are considering.

Selecting and narrowing a topic can be one of the most important things you do before engaging in a research process. Consider talking about your answers with friends, family, coworkers, and classmates. Try putting down the questions and answers and returning to them a couple of hours, or days, later. Do you have new ideas? Can you add to some of your other ideas?


 * 22) How can I make a topic manageable?**

When choosing a topic for writing, it is important to make sure that your topic is actually manageable and appropriate for the specific writing situation. Before continuing with your writing, take a moment to reflect on the topic you are working with by responding to the following questions:

1. How appropriate is this topic to the writing situation? In other words, will this topic fulfill the requirements of the assignment if you are writing for a class? If you are motivated by a situation at school or in your personal life, will exploring this topic satisfy the need that first prompted you to explore this topic?

2. How interested are you in your topic? Will you be able to sustain your interest long enough to complete the writing and research necessary? Is there a specific aspect of your topic that hold more interest for you that would be a good place for you to focus?

3. How doable is your writing task? Consider how broad your topic is right now. Will you have time to explore this topic thoroughly? Is there too much information available about the topic? If so, you might need to narrow if further. Is it difficult to find information about your topic? If so, you might need to refocus of broaden your topic.


 * 23) Focus your research topic**

Take five minutes to brainstorm a list of the things that people debate regarding your topic. Think of conversations that people would have about your topic and points of disagreement. You might think of these as subtopics within the larger topic you're exploring. If you are in a classroom setting, pass your list on to your classmates and have them add to it. If you don't have access to other students, ask your friends and family to add to the list.

Once you have your list of related topics and subtopics, try visually depicting your topic by drawing a cluster map. Start by writing your topic in the center of a piece of paper. Write your various subtopics on branches. If you can break down any of the subtopics further, create additional branches that stem from the subtopics. You might see that some branches generate more ideas than others, and you may find that you are more interested in one or two branches than others. These observations can help you pick a narrowed focus within your topic. You will probably want to focus your research and writing on one of the second- or third-generation branches away from your central, broad topic.


 * 24) Write a research question**

1. To start developing possible research questions, begin with some basic question words. Try to write at least one question that someone might raise about your issue that starts with each of the following words: //who, what, when, where, how, why, should, would.//

2. Think about what your goal is in writing. Do you want to share information about your issue? Are you defining terms or aspects of your issue? Are you evaluating something or comparing/contrasting it with something else? Are you identifying a solution? Take a look at your questions and circle any that specifically match your goal. Cross out questions that do not fulfull that goal.

3. Go back to the writing and thinking you have done about your audience and purpose in writing. Who are you writing to? What are their interests? What is your purpose in writing?

4. Use your responses to these questions to consider each of your preliminary questions from step 1. Cross out questions that would not meet the needs of your audience or fulfill your purpose in writing.

5. Finally, choose the one remaining research question that interest you most. Are there any terms you should define more clearly? Show your question to someone else and ask if it is clear. You might exchange your question with a classmate, a friend, or family member.


 * 25) What is the writer's place in the rhetorical situation?**

Reflect on how and why you are interested in your narrowed issue and research question. Consider the following questions as you compose this reflection.


 * What initially sparked your interest in this issue?


 * What did you already know about the issue, and how ell could you answer your research question right now?


 * After conducting a preliminary exploration of the issue, have those interests been confirmed?


 * What has surprised you as you've conducted the preliminary exploration?


 * Why do you value this issue?


 * What is your perspective on this issue?


 * Who might your values and perspective influence your research and writing on this issue?


 * What specific experiences have you had with this issue (friends, family members, community, news, movies, etc.)?

While answering these questions, you will want to be sure to explore past events that have molded your values and beliefs about this topic and issue. Do not simply discuss how you feel. Instead, focus on why you feel that way. What experiences have you had that make you believe what you believe? While discussing the experiences, use concrete details (sight, sound smell, touch, taste, specific emotions, etc.) to make the reader feel like he or she has had the same experience.


 * 26) Take an inventory of what you know**

As you make your final decision about the topic you will research and write about, take a personal inventory of what you know.


 * What is the central issue that people debate when they talk about your topic or discuss your research question? In other words, what is the main controversy (or what are the main controversies)? What do people disagree about?


 * What do you believe about this topic? What evidence makes you believe this? Where did you find or learn about this evidence?


 * What different people, or groups of people, are interested in your research question? What do you believe others think about this topic? What evidence do you believe they base their opinions on? Where do you think they found that evidence?


 * Where do these people discuss their positions on your issue? In other words, where would you go to find out what people are saying?


 * Based on what you already know, what perspectives do you need to learn more about?

Try conducting this activity more than once, returning to it numerous times as you research. And don't do this activity alone - get friends and family members to participate in a dialogue with you. Keep in mind that there is a difference between what we //know// as fact and what we //think// we know. This activity should not only help you figure out what you know as fact, but it should also give you a sense of what you //think// you know but need to verify.


 * 27) Should you conduct primary or secondary research?**

To help you determine what type of research will best answer your research question, fulfill your project's purpose, and appeal to your intended audience, you will want to make sure that you are gathering the right types of resources. Use the following chart to help you decides what types of resources you will need and what types of research you will conduct based on your rhetorical situation. You might not be able to think of both primary and secondary resources for every category - that's okay. If you are having trouble thinking of examples for one column or the other, try asking a classmate, a teacher, or a friend. If you are still having trouble thinking of possibilities, that might be a clue as to which type of research you should conduct.

help you achieve your purpose and motivate your audience to action? (Consider what you want readers to do after reading your paper). ||  ||   || does your audience value - numbers and statistics? anecdotes and stories? case studies and ethnographies? expert testimonies? What will be most convincing? ||  ||   || can help you answer your question thoroughly? ||  ||   || have access to? Who can help you locate and gather information? What and who do you have access to for gathering information? (Be sure to consider the project's time frame as you ask yourself these questions). ||  ||   ||
 * || **Primary** || **Secondary** ||
 * **Purpose:** What types of resources will
 * **Audience:** What types of resources/data
 * **Topic/question:** What type of information
 * **Author:** What types of resources do you


 * 28) Develop a list of search terms**

After you circle the key words in your research question, write them in the accompanying chart. Brainstorm alternative terms for each key word. After you've run out of ideas, ask your friends, family, classmates, and librarian to help you.


 * || **Key Word 1** || **Key Word 2** || **Key Word 3** ||
 * **Alternative**
 * terms from your**
 * brainstorming** ||  ||   ||   ||

Once you have your list of key words and alternatives, be sure to talk to a librarian. The librarian will help you add and cull terms from your list based on his or her experience as a researcher. The librarian should also be able to help you identify Library of Congress classification terms that will help you find information in the library more readily. Keep your chart of search terms with you as you collect your data. While reading articles or listening to interview responses, other useful terms might emerge during your research process.


 * || **Search Term 1** || **Search Term 2** || **Search Term 3** ||
 * **Librarians and the**
 * Library of Congress**
 * classification terms** ||  ||   ||   ||
 * **Terms you find during**
 * your research process** ||  ||   ||   ||


 * 29) Search the library catalog**

You might start your research for resources by browsing your library's online catalog. As you search, answer the following questions.

1. Enter your search terms into the keyword search in the library catalog. How many resources does the catalog return? Which ones look potentially useful to you? Make sure you note the call number of particularly promising resources so that you can find them on the library shelves.

2. Use variations on your search terms. What kinds of results did you find when you altered your search terms or used them in different combination? Which terms were most useful?

3. Your school participates in a program called MyLibraryNYC and you therefore have access to interlibrary loan. What resources could you request from the New York Public Library? (If you do request resources from the NYPL, make sure that you leave enough time to receive the resources and look through them before an assignment or project is due).

4. The NYPL might also have access to electronic books. If you are doing your search remotely, ebooks can be an especially useful resource. Does the NYPL catalog list any ebooks on your topic?

5. Go to the shelves and look for the resources that sound most promising to you. Once you find the section in the library shelves that has books on your topic, browse the shelf. You might be surprised at the useful resources you find by reading the spines of books surrounding yours on the library shelves. What titles do you see that look promising?


 * 30) Search for resources in periodicals**

Try the following steps to find resources in periodicals that will help you answer your research question. As you complete each step, take careful notes on what you find so that you can locate the resources again later.


 * Use an academic database through your school library. Enter the search terms that you have decided on. Then try a different set of terms in the same database to see if you get a different set of results.


 * Choose a subject-specific database, appropriate to your topic, and search for your terms again.


 * Search for you terms in Google Scholar, and academic search engine. What resources do you find that are different from the journal databases?


 * Enter your search terms into a newspaper database to see if you can find any news stories about your subject.


 * 31) Search for a variety of sources**

Once you have read about all of the different kinds of resources, take a few minutes to brainstorm some ideas about how you might use various resources to answer your research question. Write down your responses to the following questions.

1. What kinds of resources could you use in the invention stage of your research process? Could you look at blogs to help refine your research question? Could you browse news-related web sites to search for ways to focus your research? Would browsing through recent periodicals help you think through your topic? Look through the different kinds of resources we've gone over in class and write down a few that might be useful as you plan your research and writing.

2. Where might you find the most authoritative, persuasive resources that will help you answer your research question? What kinds of static, syndicated, and dynamic resources might you search for?

3. How will you evaluate the credibility of the resources that you did find? What criteria will you use to determine if they are persuasive, reliable resources? Consider your rhetorical situation and compare it with what you know about your resource: who wrote it and when; how and when it was updated and revised; how it was reviewed and by whom.


 * 32) What's your plan?**

If you have already completed, and possibly reflected upon and revised, the various activities you've completed on your blog and wiki, you have a working draft of your research plan, without the timeline component. You can fully develop a research plan in three steps.

1. List the different types of data and resources you need to collect. If possible, break the types of data and resources into smaller pieces. For example, if you are searching for statistics about whether or not the Earth has a population problem, you can break it into smaller groups of statistics about rising birth rates, rising life expectancies, and rising population numbers based on continents and countries. Ask classmates and family members to help you break down your data and resource needs into the smallest possible groups.

2. For each piece of information, describe where and how you will locate and collect that data. Be specific about where you will be looking - list not only that you'll be using the school's library databases, for example, but which specific databases. If for some reason you have to stop researching in the middle of a session, you'll be able to refer back to which databases you wanted to search (and if you tracked your data collection well, which ones you already searched). Ask your librarian for help with ideas on where you might locate different types of resources.

3. Provide a timeline, preferably with deadlines, for each task that you have to complete. Just think, the smaller each task is (the smaller each group of data to collect, the smaller each step of collecting it), the easier it will be to "fit" your research into your already busy schedule. If you leave your research plan in big pieces of work, you will only be able to work in big pieces of time. If you take the time to break your research up into smaller, more manageable pieces, you'll be able to fit it into smaller portions of your day; you'll work more consistently and chip away at your research project.


 * **Types of Resources** || **Location of Resources** ||  ||   ||   ||   ||


 * 33) Practice observing your subject**

Choose a space to observe for ten minutes. It might be a location in school. at work, or in your home. Make sure that you won't be interrupted for the ten minutes that you are observing, and bring a double-entry journal with you to record your observations. Note: You might practice this method by observing a space with which you are familiar before beginning your observation for your research project.


 * Start by observing the space immediately surrounding you, only going out one or two feet from where you are sitting. First, observe what you see, then what you hear, then what you smell, touch, and taste.


 * Extend your observation by a few feet. Again, record what you observe with each of your five senses.


 * Finally, focus on each sense and write down everything you observe - as far as you can see, hear, smell, touch, or taste.

Once you have finished noting your observations, take a moment to write comments on your observations in the other column of your double-entry journal. What patterns do you see? What surprised you?


 * 34) Draft interview questions**

Before you begin to write questions for your interview, write your responses to the following prompts.


 * What do you need to know from your interviewee? Why do you want to interview this particular person? Freewrite for five to ten minutes.


 * Once you have finished your freewrite, read your response. Look for patterns. Are there specific things that you need to know? Generate a list.


 * Now go through your list and prioritize the things you would like to know.


 * Finally, write a question for each item on your list; keep them open-ended. If you have several closed questions (questions that will elicit only a yes/no response), try inserting "Why?" at the end of such questions.

Once you have finished a preliminary list of questions, consider how many questions you will have time to ask. Are there some questions you should combine? Are there some that should be separated? Then try your interview questions out on a friend. Revise as you ask them, looking for questions that are awkward or confusing.


 * 35) Draft survey questions**

Before you begin to write specific questions for your survey, write your responses to the following prompts.


 * Who will you survey? How and why did you choose this group of people?


 * What do you need to know from your survey participants? Why do you want to survey them?

Read your responses to these questions. Look for patterns. Are there specific things that you need to know? Generate a list. Now go through your list and prioritize the thins you would like to know. Next, consider the kind of data that would be most useful in responding to your research question. Should some questions be closed questions in order to collect quantitative data? Which ones should be open-ended? Finally, write a question for each item on your list.


 * Is the survey valid and reliable?

Before using your survey with a large group of people, test it on a few friends. Look for points of confusion in the survey. Which questions should be revised for clarity?

As you test your survey, you'll also be determining whether the survey is valid and reliable. Ask the following questions as you revise the draft of your survey.


 * Is it **valid**? Does the survey actually assess what it's supposed to assess? For example, in the recycling scenario, asking "Do you think recycling is important? doesn't tell the researcher whether the person recycles. Also, if the questions are confusing, you might not be "testing" the same thing for everyone.


 * Is it **reliable**? Is the survey conducted in a similar way and scored identically for all participants? Your survey must be administered and scored consistently in order to be reliable. For example, participants should have a similar amount of time to respond, and if you are looking for patterns in open-ended responses, you should consider **inter-rate reliability**.


 * 36) What does your research plan look like now?**

At this point, take some time to plan the kinds of research you need to conduct. You might have already started a research plan that sorted though the different kinds of secondary resources for your project. If you are interested in conducting primary research, you can take that information and put it into a more comprehensive research plan, using the chart below.

You also need to decide when you are going to complete your research. Keep in mind that it will be of the utmost importance to manage your time well if you are conducting primary research; be sure to plan enough time to collect and analyze data.


 * **Types of Resources** || **Location of Resources** || **Deadlines** ||
 * **Primary Resources** ||  ||   ||
 * **Secondary Resources** ||  ||   ||
 * **Secondary Resources** ||  ||   ||
 * **Secondary Resources** ||  ||   ||
 * **Secondary Resources** ||  ||   ||
 * **Secondary Resources** ||  ||   ||


 * 37) Is your reading focused and rhetorical?**

To help distinguish between a //focused// and a //rhetorical// reading, list the various texts that you have read during the past couple of days. Then label each reading experiences as either focused or rhetorical. Ask yourself the following questions to help you categorize your reading experiences.


 * What was the goal in reading the material?


 * Did I consciously have this goal in mind before reading the material?


 * Did I pay attention to the rhetorical elements of the material (the text's author, purpose, audience, and topic?)


 * Did understaning the rhetorical elements of the material affect my goal for reading the material?

In your list, circle the reading experience that you are most confident was focused, circle another experience that you are most confident was rhetorical, and circle a third that you had the most difficult time labeling as either focused or rhetorical. Discuss these three experiences with a friend or classmate. Does your friend or classmate agree with your labeling? Why or why not?


 * 38) Choose resources to read**

As you conduct your secondary research, you will find a large number of possible resources. Knowing that you can't possibly read them all, you need to quickly assess whether a resources wi worth your time to read more closely. Practice choosing relevant resources to read by using an Internet search engine to do a search with one of the key terms of your research question. After reading only the introduction, conclusion, and subject headings, answer the following questions about the first four hits.


 * Are you able to quickly identify who wrote the resource, on what subject the resource is focused, when it was published, where it was published, and what the purpose of the resource is?


 * How does the material in the resource directly respond to your specific research question, not just your research topic?

If the resource is organized enough to answer the first question and is specifically addressing your research question, it is probably worth your time to read it more closely. Reading rhetorically is the first step in choosing and evaluating resources, but to determine whether you'll use a resource in your project requires even more intense reading and evaluation.


 * 39) Situate a resource rhetorically**

Select one of the resources you have found that could help you answer your initial research question. Respond to the following questions about that resource.


 * Who is the author of the resource, and what are his/her/their credentials?


 * With whom is the author affiliated (employer, organization, or other group?)


 * For what purpose(s) did the author write the resource? In other words, is the author trying to provide information? persuade readers? entertain? What clues help you identify the piece's purpose?


 * Who is the audience? How do you know? How might the audience have affected the way that the resource was written?

Once you have responded to all of these questions, consider the resource as a whole. How might the answers to these questions have influenced the writing of this resource?


 * 40) Annotate a resource**

Once you have chosen at least one resource to help you answer your research question, use the following strategies to practice annotating it.


 * Print source: Write on the pages directly if you printed it yourself or "mark" it with sticky notes if it's a borrowed book.


 * Electronic source: Take notes on screen or paper, or print sections so that you can mark them and keep track of your thoughts.

Annotate your source by responding to the following questions.

1. Who is the author of the text and what are his/her/their credentials?

2. What is the purpose of the text and who is its intended audience?

3. What is the major claim made in the resource?

4. What are the reasons given for supporting that claim?

5. What evidence is provided to support those reasons?

6. How useful will this resource be in your own research? How does it fit with the other resources that you have found?


 * 41) Summarize one of your resources**

Now, choose one of your own resources that you plan to use in your research project. Do a first reading of the resource (which you may have already done when you chose the resource in the first place) and summarize the main point of the resource. Keep the journalist's questions in mind as you summarize, and also try to maintain a balance between keeping your summary concise and making sure its is thorough enough to be helpful as you work on your research later.

Swap your summary with someone in your class, or a friend or family member. Ask him or her to read the summary. Did you provide enough information? If you have time, ask the person to skim the resource and recheck your summary. What information might he or she include in the summary? What information should be cut out? Why?


 * 42) Paraphrase one of your resources**

Now, choose one of the resources that you plan to use in your research project. Skim through the resource to find a passage that is particularly interesting or that you think you might use in your research project. Try paraphrasing the passage, putting it into your own words. Once you have paraphrased the passage, reread the original passage and decide whether it would be better to use your paraphrase (with reference to the source) or to quote the resource.


 * 43) Take detailed notes on a resource**

As you choose resources for your research, you might subconsciously be thinking that some of the resources are particularly useful. Often in the first stages of a research project we mentally categorize the resources we are finding into //resources I'll definitely use// and //resources I might use//. If you did this as you were doing your preliminary research, pick one of the resources that you think you would //definitely use// for this activity.

Now try using several of the strategies discussed in class to rhetorically read your resource.

As you read your resource, take the following steps.


 * Physically annotate your resource. Use a method that you are comfortable with - write on the document itself (if it is yours, you have printed it, or it is a copy), use sticky notes to keep track of ideas as you read, or keep notes on a separate piece of paper or on your computer as you read.


 * Summarize the claim or main point of the resource.


 * Paraphrase the reasons given in the resource for its claim or main point.


 * Make note of the evidence used to support the claim and reasons for the claim in the resource.


 * Contextualize the resource by noting its purpose, intended audience, author, and topic.


 * Project how and why this resource might help you answer your research question.


 * Finally, note sections that include evidence or reasons that you would want to quote directly. Carefully note specific phrases and sentences you might want to quote.


 * 44) Track bibliographic information**

The easiest way to take note of the various types of bibliographic information you will need for a resource is to use the journalist's questions. Select one resource that you know you will use in your research project and answer all of the following questions.


 * Who is the author? editor? publisher? owner/webmaster?


 * What is the name of the article? journal (page number, volume number?) web page? web site? chapter? book? blog entry? blog title?


 * When was it published? posted to the Web? When did you find it? (Be as detailed as possible - day/month/year).


 * Where did you find it? What is the name of the library? name of database? name of search engine? URL/web address? (If a book, what city was it published in?)


 * 45) Evaluate validity**

Select one of the scholarly secondary resources that you will be using in your research project. Ask yourself the following questions about the resource.


 * Can you easily identify the claim, reasons, and evidence provided in the resource?


 * Do the evidence and reasons logically support the claim? Why or why not?


 * Do you have a similar resource that either argues the same perspective or conducts a similar study?


 * If so, did the two resources use similar methods for gathering and presenting data for their argument? How are they similar and different?


 * 46) Trace a line of research**

Once you've started collecting a pile of resources, pick out two of three that you think are your strongest. Carefully read through and compare the reference lists to look for common sources, authors, and periodical titles. If you do not find any overlap, consider looking at the reference lists of other resources. Finding overlapping references can point to a specific conversation in the filed that might be of interest, and you'll want to be sure to follow those threads. Write down one or two points of overlap that you should follow up on, and then do a search using those terms (or names). What did you find?


 * 47) Introduce secondary resources**

Find a specific section of a resource that you are fairly certain that you will use in your final research paper. Answer the following questions about this specific information or piece of evidence.


 * Why might this resource be helpful in the development of your argument?


 * What might be important to point out to your audience about the information so that they pay attention to this resource in your argument?


 * Who is the author? Is the author well known in the field? Will the audience know the author's name? Does the author have very strong credentials related to this topic? (If so, you might consider incorporating the author's name, and maybe even his or her credentials, when introducing the resource).

Now try writing an introduction to the information for that resource that you could include in your final paper. Include the relevant information that will help your audience interpret the resource you are presenting to them. Here are two examples.

1. "Leading researchers in child psychology agree that spanking can be damaging to a small child..."

2. "According to Glenn, a respected researcher in child psychology..."


 * 48) Practice in-text citations**

Open a research-based document you wrote before - perhaps a paper you finished for a different class. Save it as a new file and delete all of the in-text citations (if it is a long paper, you might just copy and paste a small portion of it for this activity). If you are in another class where a research paper is required, switch documents with a partner and mark all of the places in your partner's document where you think an in-text citation should go. Then switch back and see if you agree with what your partner marked in your document. Compare the marked sections with your original paper - did you include all of the in-text citations that you should have included? Where do you and your partner disagree?


 * 49) Is it reporting or arguing?**

To help distinguish between texts that report and texts that argue, list the various pieces of writing you have completed in the past six months or so. Then label each of them as either something you reported (such as an email with show times for a movie at the local theatre) or something you argued (for example, an email claiming that you should watch one film instead of another on the upcoming Friday night). In other words, was the primary goal to provide information to your audience (reporting) or to persuade your audience (argument)? Ask yourself the following questions to help create your list and identify your writing as either reporting or arguing.


 * What pieces of writing have you done for school? your job? in your personal and home life? in civic or community life?


 * What was the purpose for the piece of writing?


 * Who was your audience for the piece of writing? What did you want your audience to do after reading your text?

In your list, circle the writing experience that you are most confident was reporting, circle another experience that you are most confident was arguing, and circle a third that you had the most difficult time labeling as either reporting or arguing. Discuss these three experiences with a friend or classmate. Does your friend or classmate agree with your labeling? Why or why not?


 * 50) Define the rhetorical situation**

Before you start to dig into drafting, take a moment to remind yourself of your rhetorical situation. This activity will help to focus your thoughts as you begin to write. It will also give you the chance to rethink some elements of the rhetorical situation that might have shifted as you conducted your research. For example, you might have come across some resources that suggested a specific, different audience than you had originally imagined. Use this as an opportunity to fine tune your focus before developing a direction for your argument and a complete draft. Write down your answers to the following questions.


 * What is the research question you are trying to answer? If you need to rephrase or refocus the research question, this is a good time to do so.


 * What is your purpose for researching and writing about this issue? Consider multiple purposes that you might have, and try to list them in order of priority.


 * Who is the audience you are addressing? Be specific and describe as much as you can. Also consider the possibility that you might be addressing direct and implicit audiences in your research and writing.


 * How do you fit into the context? In other words, how might your beliefs and understanding affect what you write and how you interpret resources?


 * Where do your answers to these four questions overlap? How might those overlapping answers further focus your research topic?

Once you have written responses to these questions and/or completed a Venn diagram, consider sharing them with a classmate, friend, parent, or coworker. Encourage the person to ask you questions that will help to refine your focus.


 * 51) Draft a thesis statement**

As you work on this activity, keep your original research question in front of you along with your list (or cluster map) of possible responses. Use these steps to draft the two parts of your thesis statement (your claim and your reasons). Keep in mind that your claim is the answer to your research question, and the reasons could be thought of as "because" statements that support the claim. Read the example, and use it as a guide to write your own thesis statement.


 * Sample research question:** Should a law be passed to make English the official language of the United States?


 * Precise claim:** Congress should pass a law making English the official language of the United States.


 * Reasons/blueprint:**


 * A common language would encourage unity among citizens.


 * Learning English is empowering to people because of its status in global communication.


 * Complete thesis statement:** Congress should pass a law making English the official language of the United States because it would encourage unity among citizens and empower people to participate in global communication.

Now it's your turn. Write your responses to the following prompts for your research project.


 * **Research question:**


 * **Precise claim:**


 * **Reasons/blueprint:**


 * **Complete thesis statement:**

Note: Even if you choose not to use both the claim and the reasons in your thesis statement, you have begun supporting your argument by developing the complete thesis statement.


 * 52) Develop an authorial ethos**

As you being to develop and support your argument, consider how you could construct your own ethos in the argument.


 * What is your experience with this topic? Do you have firsthand or detailed knowledge about the topic that gives you authority to research and discuss it?


 * What is your experience with your audience members? Do you have firsthand or detailed knowledge about them that will allow you to make explicit connections to their wants and needs?


 * What resources have you located that demonstrate authority and credibility? Do you have resources by experts on the topic? Do you have research studies or experiments conducted by qualified researchers?

And finally, what would be most persuasive to your audience? Which members of your audience would be most persuaded by an appeal based on credibility?


 * 53) Develop emotional arguments**

Now consider how you could incorporate appeals based on pathos into your argument. Write down your answers to the following questions.


 * How and why are you invested in this topic? What motivates you to continue researching and writing about this topic when you are tired and worn out?


 * How and why are your audience members invested in this topic? How does this topic affect

- your audience members' finances?

- your audience members' living situations?

- your audience's families or close circles of friends?

- your audience members' employment or employment processes?


 * 54) Understand your warrants**

Revisit the complete thesis statement you have developed, the one that includes your claim and reasons. Focus on one of the reasons. As you might notice from the preceding examples, all warrants have two parts, one explicitly connected to the claim and one explicitly connected to the reason. State the warrant connecting your claim to your reason and decide whether you need to further support your warrant. Use the following questions to help articulate your warrant.

1. Does your warrant include one section for your claim and one for your reason?

2. Does your warrant sufficiently connect your reason to your claim?

3. Will your intended audience undeniably agree with your warrant? Why or why not?

If your answer is "yes" to the third question, you probably do not need to support your warrant any further. However, if your answer is "no," be sure to develop reasons and evidence to support your warrant.

After you have explicitly stated your warrant and decided whether it needs to be supported further, talk to a classmate, friend, or colleague about your claim, reason, and warrant. Do they agree that you have identified the correct warrant? Do they agree that you do or do not need to further support your warrant?


 * 55) Develop counterarguments**

Start identifying possible counterarguments. Look back over your research and identify perspectives that are different from your claim. Rank the differing perspectives from strongest (has the most validity, legitimacy, and credibility) to the weakest (is incomprehensible, unbelievable, and dismissible). Construct a rebuttal against the two strongest alternative perspectives on your list.


 * 56) Construct an argument**

This guide can help you construct your argument, and you can add and subtract elements as needed. Many writers find templates or guidelines like this helpful to start planning their written project; however, they will break away from it as the project's rhetorical situation demands.


 * Research question:


 * Answer/thesis/claim:


 * Ethos: Would your audience find appeals based on ethos to be persuasive? Where and how will you demonstrate your credibility and authority as an author?


 * Pathos: Would your audience find appeals based on pathos to be persuasive? Where and how will you include appeals to the audience's emotions?


 * Logos: Would your audience find appeals based on logos to be persuasive? Where and how will you appeal to your audience through logic and reasoning?


 * Reason 1


 * Reason 2


 * Reason 3


 * Reason 4


 * Objections your audience might have:

Qualifiers: Which claims, reasons, or refutation might you need to qualify?


 * 57) Are you addressing your audience's wants and needs?**

As you begin to think about which evidence to include in your argument, start by reflecting on your audience. Try responding to the following questions to help you determine which evidence might be most useful and persuasive to include in your argument.

1. Who is/are your audience(s)? Think about who your primary audience is, and then consider whether there are other audiences that you are also addressing. You might have an explicit audience that is more defined and also an implicit audience. For example, if you are writing a paper for a class, you might address an explicit audience that would be appropriate for your topic, but then you always have the implied audience of your teacher to consider as well.

Now answer each of the following questions for each audience that you identified in item 1.

2. What does your audience value? What is important to them?

3. What will your audience be expecting in terms of evidence? What types of evidence are you required to include (if any)? Have you found evidence that would be undoubtedly convincing to your audience?

4. What does your audience think about your issue? Do they already have well-formed opinions in response to your research question? Do you know whether they already agree or disagree with you? Your response to this question will help you determine not only which evidence to include but also how much. If your audience disagrees with you, then you may need to include more evidence. If your audience is open to different ideas or already agrees with parts of your argument, then you might use less evidence in certain parts of your argument.


 * 58) Develop evaluative criteria**

To help develop criteria to use while constructing arguments and selecting evidence, write your answers to the following questions.

1. Who is the audience(s) for this research project? What do they want to know? What do they need to know?

2. What is the purpose of this research project? What must be conveyed for that purpose to be achieved?

3. How timely is this research project? What types of contemporary information must you address? What types of historical inforamtion must you address? How recent must information be to be relevant and persuasive?

4. How did you continue to narrow and focus your research question? What type of information must you find to fit within that scope? What information may be only tangentially relevant?

5. What other elements or issues about your topic must be covered?

6. What elements or issues about your topic might be interesting but not useful since they do not fit the purpose or scope of your project?

Use these criteria to start reevaluating your research. Based on these criteria, divide the results of your research into three piles.


 * information you must include in your project


 * information you might include because it is tangentially relevant


 * information that you will not include because it is not useful or relevant

Put the information that is not relevant in an envelope, shoe box, or separate computer file. Tuck it safely away somewhere. Although you will probably not use it and do not want to be distracted by it any longer, do not throw it away yet. Depending on the direction your project takes, the information might be useful later.


 * 59) Evaluate types of resources**

Select one of the resources you categorized as something you //must// include based on the previous activity. Categorize it as static, syndicated, or dynamic. Also categorize it as self-published, edited, or peer reviewed. Answer the following questions based on your categorization of the resource.


 * How would your audience react to this type of resource? Would they find this to be a reliable source? Why or why not? If not, what information do you need to provide to persuade them? For example, could you emphasize the credentials of the author or perhaps the timeliness of the information?


 * What types of information would your audience need to know about this resource? Is that information already included in the full bibliographic citation? What information do you need to provide for them to locate the exact resource you looked at or worked with?


 * How critical is this resources to your research? Does your rhetorical situation demand that you incorporate this resource into your project?


 * 60) Find additional resources**

Based on the claim, reasons, and evidence you have brought together so far, what holes still exist in your argument? Where is your audience most likely to disagree with your argument? Identify two areas in your argument cluster that you are concerned about. For each area of concern, take the following steps.

1. List specific types of information, resources, and pieces of evidence that you would like to find to support your areas of concern. Talk to an instructor, mentor, or librarian to help you identify where you might find the items on your list.

2. Share your cluster map or an outline of your argument with a classmate, family member, or friend. Ask them to identify your two weakest spots.

3. Share your cluster map or an outline of your argument with a different classmate, family member, or friend. Specifically identify your areas of concern; ask them if they agree with your concerns. Ask for suggestions on strengthening your argument.

Based on this feedback, produce a new cluster map, outline, or draft of your argument.


 * 61) Develop an outline**

Using the various structures presented, develop and outline for your argument. Start with your claim and list your reasons and evidence. After you have produced the outline, describe what structural patterns you used and why you used them.

You can develop your outline as a formal outline, sentence outline, or scratch outline. If you're not certain in your choice of argument pattern of organization, try using another set of structures and develop a second outline for your argument. Describe what structural patterns you used for this second outline and discuss why you used them.

Share your outline(s) with a classmate or a friend. If you developed more than one, ask which argument or organizational pattern he or she preferred and why.


 * 62) Are you grabbing your audience's attention and motivating them to action?**

Good writers know they need to motivate their audience, both to read the document and to take action on the argument. By this point in the process, you have narrowed your audience enough that you have a very good idea about who they are and what they care about. To help construct introductions and conclusions that motivate your readers, answer the following questions about your primary audience.


 * Why is your audience invested in this topic in general? Why are they invested in the answer to your specific research question?


 * What interests your audience about this topic? What could change from the status quo that would greatly satisfy your audience?


 * What scares your audience about this topic? What could change from the status quo that would concern your audience even more?


 * 63) Draft an effective introduction**

As you draft your introduction, keep your rhetorical situation in mind - especially the purpose of your argument and the audeince you are addressing. Freewrite in response to the following questions to help you draft your introduction.


 * Why is this topic important? How does it affect the audience? the community? the world?


 * What is the audience's stand on the issue? How does if differ from yours? If their perspective is different from yours, how might you show respect for their perspective so that they might read yours?


 * What is your authority on this topic? Who are the other major "players" that write or talk about this topic? What are their strengths and points of authority? their weaknesses?


 * Does your audience know the topic, or its history, well? What do they already know? What do they need to know to understand your perspective?


 * How long will your paper be? How complex will your argument be? Do you need to give the audience a road map to prepare them for your argument?

Once you have drafted your responses to these questions, look for the most compelling point in what you wrote. Copy and paste that below what you wrote (or even highlight it or circle it if you're writing in a notebook), and then freewrite about that idea for another five minutes. Is this something you could develop into an introduction for your argument? You could try this looping activity a couple of ties until you find something that you think you could develop into your introduction.


 * 64) Develop closure**

Continue to keep your rhetorical situation in mind as you work on a conclusion for your argument. Remember that you are trying to bring a sense of closure to your argument, and consider what you want your audience to be thinking or feeling when they are finished. Freewrite in response to the following questions to begin drafting your conclusion.


 * What issues raised in your argument need to be repeated for your audience? Is there any support offered in your argument that bears repeating?


 * What will happen if the current situation continues as it is? What effects might impact your audience, and what effects might impact others that your audience will be concerned about? How could you demonstrate the importance of these effects?


 * How could you demonstrate that the current problem violates the shared values of a community?


 * Is this present issue parallel in any way to a previous situation? Are there circumstances or effects from a previous parallel situation that might spur your audience to action (perhaps because they want to avoid those effects or because a previous situation was resolved well and you'd like to see a similar resolution)?


 * To which person, or group of people, should your readers address their concerns? How might you encourage them to share those concerns?


 * Will this situation continue if nothing is done? If so, how will the audience be impacted?

Once you have drafter your responses to these questions, look for the most compelling point in what you wrote. Copy and paste it below what you wrote (or even highlight it or circle it if you're writing in a notebook), and then freewrite about that idea for another five minutes. Is this something you could develop into a conclusion for your argument? You could try this looping activity a couple of times until you find something that you think you could develop for your conclusion.


 * 65) Identify possible frames**

Reread the draft of your introduction and highlight the most effective, or persuasive, image, quotation, or reference. If you are reading a digital version of your paper, copy that section of your introduction. Then read (or scroll down to) your conclusion. Reread what you have written, looking for a location where you could effectively insert the reference from your introduction. Then copy (or paste) the image into your conclusion, and write effective sentences to contextualize that reference in your conclusion. You might look toward the beginning or the end of your conclusion for an opening point, and keep in mind that repeating that reference will signal to your audience that you are wrapping things up in your argument.


 * 66) Draft your final argument**

Open a new document in your word processor and either type in or cut and paste your outline. Select one of the section that you think you can write about without needing to check your resources. Even if that section is in the middle of the outline, it's okay to start writing there. Once you have completed all that you can, without help from your resources, stop. Now go and find the resources that will help you develop that section. Once you have completed the section you worked on first, move on to the next one. Before you know it, you'll have a complete draft.

As you write, or once you have completed several successive sections, look at how you can make effective connections between those section. Even though you may draft in chunks, moving back and forth to different sections in the paper, you need to make connections between the sections and even out the prose so that the final version reads as one fluid argument.